Cahokia: North America’s First City北美首城卡霍基亚

欧文·亚鲁什

Cahokia was a city that， at its peak from A.D. 1050-1200， was larger than many European cities， including London. The city was spread out over six square miles （16 square kilometers） and encompassed at least 120 mounds and a population between 10，000 and 20，000 people.

Located across the Mississippi River from modern-day St. Louis， it was the largest pre-Columbian city north of Mexico. The inhabitants of Cahokia did not use a writing system， and researchers today rely heavily on archaeology to interpret it. The name “Cahokia” is from an aboriginal people who lived in the area during the 17th century.

Cultural finds from the city include evidence of a popular game called “Chunkey” and a caffeine loaded drink. Artistic finds include stone tablets carved with images （such as a birdman） as well as evidence of sophisticated copper working， including jewelry and headdresses.

Recent research shows that many of the people who lived at Cahokia were immigrants who came from across the Midwest， possibly traveling from as far away as the Great Lakes and Gulf Coast， a study of their teeth shows. To the south of Cahokia a settlement that archaeologists call Washausen became abandoned around the time Cahokia was at its peak around A.D. 1100， a study published recently in the Journal of Archaeological Science Reports found. It’s possible that some of the residents at Washausen， and other sites located near it， moved to Cahokia.

The city’s growth may have been aided by warmer temperatures. At the time Cahokia flourished， temperatures across the Earth were unusually warm， resulting in increased rainfall in the American Midwest， wrote archaeologists Timothy Pauketat and Susan Alt in a paper published in the book “Medieval Mississippians： The Cahokian World” （School for Advanced Research Press， 2015） 1. “An increase in average yearly precipitation accompanied the warmer weather， permitting maize farming to thrive，” Pauketat and Alt wrote.

The city fell into decline after 1200， around the time that a flood occurred， becoming abandoned by 1400. Much of the city lies buried under 19th- and 20th-century developments， including a highway and the growth of the city of St. Louis. Over the past few decades， efforts have been made to preserve what remains， with Cahokia’s core now part of a state historic site.

Monks Mound

The most awesome example of architecture at Cahokia is the 100-foot （30-meter） tall “Monks Mound”—the name given to it because a group of Trappist2 monks lived near it in historic times.

It was built with four terraces， covering about 17 acres （6.8 hectares） at its base， the mound towering over the city. Archaeologists have found giant postholes at the top indicating the presence of what may have been a temple， presumably made of wood， measuring 104 feet （31 m） by 48 feet （15 m）. Its postholes are over 3 feet （1 m） in diameter， the building being perhaps 50 feet （15 m） tall.

Monks Mound， along with a grand plaza and a group of smaller mounds， was walled in with a 2-mile-long （3.2 km） wooden palisade. As many as 20，000 wooden posts were used to construct it.

Woodhenge

To the west of Monks Mound is a series of five circles， each originally made of red cedar wood posts， constructed at different times between A.D. 900 and 1100. They vary in size from 12 to 60 posts， the latest one being the smallest. Archaeologists refer to these structures as a “woodhenge，” a reconstruction of which now exists.

These posts would likely have been used as a calendar of sorts marking the solstices， equinoxes and festivals important to the inhabitants. A priest could have stood on a raised platform in the middle.

The sunrise during the equinox， when it rises to the east， is said to be particularly spectacular from this spot. A post aligns with the front of Monks Mound and the massive structure looks like it “gives birth” to the sun， according to a modern account recorded on the Cahokia Mounds state historic site website.

Human sacrifice

Mound 72 is a 10-foot-high （3 m） structure located less than a half-mile south of Monks Mound. It dates between 1050 and 1150 and holds the remains of 272 people， many of them sacrificed—the largest number of sacrificial victims ever found north of Mexico.

The mound’s archaeology is complicated but several instances of human sacrifice can be made out. In one case， 39 men and women were executed “on the spot，” wrote Pauketat in the book “Cahokia： Ancient America’s Great City on the Mississippi” （Penguin， 2010）. “It seemed likely the victims had been lined up on the edge of the pit... and clubbed one by one so that their bodies fell sequentially into it.”

In another episode of sacrifice， 52 malnourished women between the ages of 18 and 23 appear to have been sacrificed at the same time， along with a woman in her 30s. It’s not known why these women were sacrificed. A study of the teeth of the women indicates that many of them are from the local area， suggesting that they were not captured during a war.

The burial mound also has the remains of a man and woman who were found buried with 20，000 shell beads， likely the remains of a garment（s）. They may have been a couple that had a great amount of power at Cahokia. Near their remains archaeologists found the burials of 12 other people including several male-female couples as well as the remains of a child.

Cosmology

The absence of written records makes it difficult for researchers to understand all the religious and spiritual beliefs that the residents of Cahokia had. However， “new evidence suggests that the central Cahokia precinct was designed to align with calendrical and cosmological referents—sun， moon， earth， water and the netherworld，” wrote a team of archaeologists in an article published in 2017 in the journal Antiquity.

For instance， there is a place that archaeologists call the “Emerald Acropolis，” which marks “the beginning of a processional route” that leads to central Cahokia， the archaeologists wrote in the journal article. At least 12 mounds along with the remains of wooden buildings （some of which were likely used as “shrines”） have been identified at this acropolis， the archaeologists wrote， noting that the mounds and wooden buildings have “lunar alignments.”

Additionally， water may have played a role in the rituals performed at the acropolis. Some of the buildings were ritually “closed” with “water-redeposited silts” put over them， the archaeologists wrote. In a few cases， mats or hides were burned inside the buildings before silt was put over them. A burial of an infant was found in one of the buildings and may have been placed inside as an “offering”， archaeologists wrote.

Chunkey

Cahokia supported a rich variety of art and cultural activities. Among them are stones used for a once wildly popular game called “Chunkey.”

Archaeologists cannot be certain what the exact rules were at the time Cahokia thrived. Accounts of the game in the 18th and 19th century tell of a stone disc， called a “chunkey stone，” that would be rolled on a playing field with people throwing giant sticks， larger than themselves， at it， trying to land them as close to the stone as possible. Points would be given depending on how close they came. Gambling on the outcome of this game was common， according to writers who lived in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Pauketat envisions Chunkey being played as a team sport at Cahokia in the plaza beside Monks Mound. In an Archaeology Magazine article， he writes that “the chief standing at the summit of the black， packed-earth pyramid raises his arms. In the grand plaza below， a deafening shout erupts from 1，000 gathered souls. Then the crowd divides in two， and both groups run across the plaza， shrieking wildly. Hundreds of spears fly through the air toward a small rolling stone disk...” Spectators would cheer them on， witnessing a great sport that captivated the North American city.

在其鼎盛时期（1050—1200），卡霍基亚比包含伦敦在内的许多欧洲城市还要大，占地面积超过6平方英里（16平方千米），包含至少120个土丘，人口数量在1万至2万之间。

卡霍基亚位于密西西比河沿岸，与如今的圣路易斯市隔河相望，是前哥伦布时代墨西哥北部最大的一座城市。卡霍基亚的居民没有统一的书写系统，如今的研究人员极大地依赖于考古学来解读其文字。其名“卡霍基亚”来源于17世纪生活在这片土地上的土著居民。

这座城市的文化发现包括一款叫“掷矛击石”的通俗游戏和一种咖啡因饮料，艺术发现包括刻有图案（比如鸟人图案）的石匾、精美的黄铜制品（比如珠宝和头饰）。

最近研究显示，许多卡霍基亚的居民是穿越美国中西部而来的移民;一项关于居民牙齿的研究表明，他们可能来自五大湖区和墨西哥湾沿岸。最近发表在《考古科学报告》上的一项研究发现，卡霍基亚南部的一处聚居地——考古学家称之为瓦肖森——在公元1100年左右荒废，而这一时间正是卡霍基亚的繁盛时期，有可能瓦肖森及其附近的居民在这一时期移居卡霍基亚。

温暖的气候是这座城市发展的一个推动力。考古学家蒂莫西·保克特和苏珊·阿尔特在《中世纪密西西比人：卡霍基亚世界》（高级研究院出版社，2015）一书的一篇文章中提到，在卡霍基亚的繁荣时期，地球出现罕见的温暖气象，导致美国中西部降水量增加。保克特和阿尔特写道：“温度攀升带来的年均降水量增加促进了玉米种植业的繁荣。”

卡霍基亚自1200年起开始走向衰落，当时，城市发了一场洪水，最终在1400年荒废。城市的大部分在19世纪和20世纪的发展中被掩埋，包括一条高速公路的建设和圣路易斯市的发展。在过去的几十年中，人们付出诸多努力保护遗留的卡霍基亚核心地带，该部分如今已成为国家历史遗迹。

修道土丘

卡霍基亚最雄伟的建筑是100英尺（30米）高的修道土丘，因一群特拉普派修道士曾在某一历史时期在其附近居住而得名。

修道土丘由四座平台建成，底部占地约17英亩（6.8公顷），俯瞰整座城市。考古学家发现其顶部有巨大的柱坑，表明这里曾经一度用作庙宇，很可能是木质结构，104英尺（约31米）长，48英尺（约15米）宽。其柱坑直径超过3英尺（约1米），整个修道土丘高约50英尺（约15米）。

修道土丘与一座大广场和一堆小土丘一同被2英里（3.2千米）长的木栅栏包围，该木栅栏由多达2万根木桩组成。

巨木阵

修道土丘向西是一列五个圆环，在公元900年至1100年的不同时间由红雪松木桩组成，大小从12根至60根木桩不等，最后建的那个体积最小。考古学家称这种结构为“巨木阵”，其复原品如今仍存在。

这些木桩可能是用来记录对居民来说非常重要的日期：春分、夏至、秋分、冬至及各种节日。神父可能会站在中央凸起的平台上。

据说，春分、秋分时，在这个点上可以观赏到蔚为壮观的旭日东升。根据国家历史遗迹网站上关于卡霍基亚土丘的一个现代记录，一根木桩和修道土丘前部连成一线，其形态就像“孕育”了太阳。

人祭

72号土丘位于修道土丘以南半英里内，高10英尺（3米），建于1050年至1150年间，保存了272具遗体——大多是献祭者的遗体，这是墨西哥北部有史以来所发现的祭祀遇难者数量之最。

这座土丘的相关考古工作十分复杂，但可以辨认出多处人祭的情形。保克特在《卡霍基亚：古代美洲密西西比河畔最大的城市》一书中写道，有一次，39人被“当场”处死（企鹅出版社，2010）。“这些牺牲者看起来很可能是在土坑边缘列队站好，并被依次棒击，以使他们的尸体也有序地落入土坑。

在另一处祭祀墓冢中，52名18岁至23岁营养不良的女性和一位30多岁的女性同时被献祭，而她们被献祭的原因不明。关于她们牙齿的一项研究显示，她们大多是当地人，这表明她们并非战俘。

这一墓冢还有一对男女的遗体以及2万颗贝壳珠陪葬品，这些贝壳珠可能是一件或几件衣服上的装饰。他们可能是卡霍基亚一对握有重权的夫妇。在他们遗体的附近，考古学家还发现其他12个人的遗体，包括几对夫妇及一个孩子。

宇宙学

由于文字记录的缺失，研究者很难理解卡霍基亚居民的所有宗教和精神信仰。然而，一组考古学家在2017年发表于《古迹》杂志的一篇文章中写道：“新的证据表明，卡霍基亚中心区域曾被用来校准日历法和宇宙学参照物：太阳、月亮、地球、水、阴间。”

例如，考古學家在该期刊论文中写道，有一个地方被他们称为“翡翠卫城”，它标志着通往卡霍基亚中心的“一条宗教游行线路的起点”。文中提到，在这座卫城中，至少发现了12座土丘和一些木制建筑（有些被用作“圣坛”）的遗迹，这些土墩和木制建筑均有“月亮参照物”。

此外，考古学家还写道，水在卫城的宗教仪式中或许扮演了重要的角色。有些建筑因被“水积泥沙”覆盖而仪式性地“封闭”。有几处建筑被泥沙覆盖前，建筑内的垫子和兽皮已被焚烧。考古学家写道，在其中的一座建筑内，他们发现一个婴儿被埋葬，而这个婴儿可能被当作“祭品”。

掷矛击石

卡霍基亚拥有各式各样的艺术和文化活动，包括一种曾经风靡的游戏“掷矛击石”。

考古学家不能确定在卡霍基亚繁荣时期这种游戏的具体规则。在18、19世纪关于这一游戏的文字记载中介绍了一种叫“环棒石”的石盘，其玩法是人们在广场上滚动“环棒石”，同时投掷比他们自己还要大的棍棒去击打石头，努力使棍棒落在距石头尽可能近的地方，距离越近，得分越高。据生活在18世纪和19世纪作家们的描述，基于这项游戏的博彩当时很流行。

保克特推测，“掷矛击石”是人们在卡霍基亚修道土丘旁的广场上所玩的一项团队运动。在一篇考古学期刊的文章中，他写道：“首领站在由土填起来的黑色尖塔塔尖，举起双臂，而在下面的大广场上汇集了1000人，发出震耳欲聋的呐喊。随后，这群人分为两个阵营，两队都奔跑穿过广场，高声尖叫。几百支矛在空中飞舞，刺向滚动的小石盘……”观众此时也会为他们助威，观看这项使这座北美城市着迷的伟大运动。

（译者为“《英语世界》杯”翻译大赛获奖选手，单位：南京师范大学）