Lancang-Mekong Cooperation: New Forms of Innovation in the Sub-Regional Order

Zhai Kun is Professor at the School of International Relations, Peking University, and Vice President of the Institute of Regional and Country Studies, Peking University; Zhang Tian is Assistant Research Fellow and Postdoctoral Fellow at the Institute of Regional and Country Studies, Peking University.

The Lancang-Mekong Cooperation (hereinafter referred to as LMC)is an important sub-regional cooperation platform for China to implement the concept of neighborhood diplomacy in the new era,promote the Belt and Road Initiative, and build a community with a shared future for mankind.After six years of growth, it is entering a period of“Five Golden Years.”1“Ushering in Another‘Golden Five Years’of Lancang-Mekong Cooperation: Lancang-Mekong Cooperation Foreign Ministers’Meeting Held in Chongqing,”June 9, 2021, http://www.gov.cn/guowuyuan/2021-06/09/content_5616332.htm.The top priority of LMC, namely water resources cooperation,is a highly important and complex area.It calls for genuine multilateralism and the diplomatic wisdom of building a regional order through consultation.In June 2021, the 6th LMC Foreign Ministers’Meeting issued the Joint Statement on Enhancing Sustainable Development Cooperation of the Lancang-Mekong Countries, which spoke highly of the efforts made by the water resources authorities of the six countries to strengthen cooperation mechanism building and steadily implement the Five-Year Action Plan on Mekong-Lancang Water Resources Cooperation (2018-2022).In December 2021, the Second Lancang-Mekong Water Resources Cooperation Forum held in-depth discussions on the theme of“Working Together to Address Challenges and Promote Common Development,”taking an important step towards implementing the consensus reached at the third Lancang-Mekong Cooperation Leaders’Meeting.On July 4, 2022, Chinese State Councilor and Foreign Minister Wang Yi attended the 7th Lancang-Mekong Cooperation Foreign Ministers’Meeting in Bagan, Myanmar, where he put forward proposals on strengthening cooperation in water resources and building a beautiful Lancang-Mekong homeland.The meeting decided to implement measures such as the“Plan on Lancang-Mekong Water Resources Benefiting the People,”and jointly build a“golden model”of LMC.

The effective promotion of Lancang-Mekong water resources cooperation stems from the formation of a strategic narrative2Carolijn van Noort and Thomas Colley,“How Do Strategic Narratives Shape Policy Adoption?Responses to China’s Belt and Road Initiative,”Review of International Studies, Vol.47, No.1, pp.39-63.and the corresponding practice, which differ from conventional modes of water resources cooperation.The strategic narrative and related strategic practice complement each other and serve the national strategy together.As the world enters the stage of competition in multiple or all fields, the ability to create a national strategic narrative has increasingly become new territory and a new battlefield of great power game in the cognitive domain among major powers.3“Strategic Narrative: The New Frontier of Great Power Game,”June 15, 2022, http://news.cssn.cn/zx/bwyc/202206/t20220615_5412640.shtml.The narrative of LMC starts from the governance perspective of sub-regional cooperation,builds an inclusive order among Lancang-Mekong countries, and demonstrates Chinese wisdom in neighborhood diplomacy.This paper aims to explain the narrative and innovation of Lancang-Mekong water resources cooperation governance and its practices, systematically reviews the path of combining knowledge and action in LMC, and proposes the idea of building an inclusive regional order and a closer Lancang-Mekong community with a shared future in the coming“Golden Five Years”period.

Innovation Based on Integration in the Lancang-Mekong Water Cooperative Governance Narrative

Since the inception of the LMC, under the guidance of the vision of a community with a shared future for mankind, countries in the sub-region have systematically developed a governance narrative that emphasizes symbiosis in governance.This set of narratives has the following main connotations.

Integrating regional characteristics from ancient and modern China with those abroad

China is a country with one of the world’s most complex systems for water resources development and has always regarded water management as a priority in governance.The ancient Chinese people paid attention to the experience of drainage rather than blockage, and after many vicissitudes of life, established a lasting and harmonious relationship between the upstream and downstream regions in China.Similarly, China has introduced the concept of harmonious coexistence for the control of cross-border rivers and established close exchanges with Mekong countries since ancient times.Although the LMC was established later than the various other mechanisms between non-regional countries and Mekong countries, it has quickly become the most successful cooperation platform in the sub-region.The credit goes to the solid foundation of upstream and downstream cooperation, while drawing from the rich experience in social practice, ancient knowledge of harmonious water management in the Lancang-Mekong River basin, and from the relevant experience of trans-boundary water resources management in other basins.The governance narrative of Lancang-Mekong water cooperation not only incorporates the notion of“water conservancy without dispute,”but also strongly promotes the traditional framework of multilateral water resources cooperation.

According to the World Water Council’s guidelines, there are three main paths for cross-border water cooperation: water diplomacy guided by national policies, multilateral cooperation and assistance guided by water governance,and multilateral water forums guided by collective action.4World Water Council,“The Introduction of the World Water Council,”https://www.worldwatercouncil.org/en/world-water-council.After the end of the Cold War, the rise of global multilateralism provided a platform for the implementation of these mechanisms.However, since the beginning of the 21st century with its constraints due to geopolitical factors, traditional water resources cooperation has been unable to rely on genuine multilateralism, and has long failed to resolve the mismatch between commitment and obligation and the gap between responsibility and strength.[5“Water Cooperation,”October 24, 2014, https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/water_cooperation.shtml.]Since the establishment of the LMC, the Lancang-Mekong Water Resources Cooperation Ministers’s Meeting and the Lancang-Mekong Water Resources Cooperation Forum have been held, cooperation between the Lancang-Mekong Water Resources Cooperation Center and the secretariat of the Mekong River Committee have been deepened, an information sharing platform for water resources cooperation has been built, and the three major mechanisms of worldwide water cooperation, namely water diplomacy, water aid, and the water forum, have been carried forward, injecting new vitality into regional water cooperation.

Balancing development with security

Highlighting development contradictions is a popular water cooperation narrative.It emphasizes the conflicts between water resources development and pollution.Overexploitation and environmental pollution from early industrialization often cause transnational crises and threaten the development of all countries, which has many security implications for water resources cooperation.The narrative of development contradictions focuses on water pollution and ecological damage caused by river development and demands the observation of ecological and environmental protection rules such as clean hydropower, human rights, and green resource management.Based on such strategic narratives, western countries often smear and criticize China for being“irresponsible”on Lancang-Mekong water resources.

As Premier Li Keqiang put it,“Water conservancy projects are not only security projects, but also livelihood projects and development projects;It will benefit both the present and the long term.”6“Why Did Li Kejiang Come to This Reservoir During His Visit in Chongqing,”www.gov.cn, August 21,2020, http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-08/21/content_5536322.htm.China attaches great importance to balanced development and safe water management.At the same time, in the process of advancing Lancang-Mekong River cooperation,Lancang-Mekong countries have broken through the conventional security dilemma implied by the narrative of development contradictions, and have followed the logic of integrating development and security.On the one hand, Lancang-Mekong countries recognize the problems of development,conflict, and responsibility in water resources governance, advocate fair and equitable sharing and management of water resources, and propose that Lancang-Mekong water cooperation governance is a whole-process framework ranging from development to utilization and management.On the other hand, countries implement the UN’s concept of sustainable water resources development, emphasize the development logic of water resources cooperation,and promote peace, cooperation, and development related to transboundary water management.7“Sustainable Water Resource,”https://www.un.org/zh/sustainability/waterpollution/un.shtml.

To be specific, the first is to propose that the underlying motivation of water cooperation is to manage water, benefit the people, and coordinate human development and security.All six countries in the Lancang-Mekong region live close to water and have long faced problems of water use and management.The primary motivation for people’s water management is development.Lancang-mekong water cooperation emphasizes development for the benefit of the waters, adheres to the principle of six-party cooperation and co-governance, and carries out more water conservancy projects that benefit the people.China took the lead in opening the website of the Lancang-Mekong Water Resources Cooperation information sharing platform, and actively dispelling the negative impact that security matters such as human rights issues and political protests may have on the development of water resources in the Lancang-Mekong region.8Hang Ngo Thu and Uta Wehn,“Data Sharing in International Transboundary Contexts: The Vietnamese Perspective on Data Sharing in the Lower Mekong Basin,”Journal of Hydrology, Vol.536, 2016, pp.351-364.

Second, the concept of overall development and security in water resources cooperation is constantly updated.Lancang-mekong regional cooperation introduces the green economy into water resources cooperation, explores innovation, and builds a network of research and development centers.9“Full Transcript of Li Keqiang’s Speech at the Third Lancang-Mekong Cooperation (LMC) Leaders’Meeting,”August 24, 2020, http://www.news.cn/politics/leaders/2020-08/24/c_1126407739.htmIt encourages sub-regional countries to turn the Lancang-Mekong economic development belt into an innovative development belt based on the principle of equality, voluntariness, and consensus in light of their national conditions.

Third, the narrative emphasizes the path of promoting security and ensuring development through common security.At the Third Lancang-Mekong Cooperation Leaders’Meeting in 2020, Premier Li Keqiang stressed that for the six Lancang-Mekong countries,“Drinking water from the same river, we, the LMC countries, are close as one family living in a community with a shared future.”10“Facilitate High-quality Development of Lancang-Mekong Cooperation,”December 3, 2020, http://world.people.com.cn/n1/2020/1203/c434271-31954341.html.LMC focuses on top-level design and strategic planning,provides more space for dialogue among member states, and allocates special funds and public goods for common development through the Asia-Pacific and East Asia cooperation mechanisms.

Fourth, LMC has taken the initiative to dispel the suspicion that development and security may be incompatible with each other.Some countries outside the region are geographically far away from the Lancang-Mekong River basin, making it difficult for them to feel the pain points and demands of local development and cooperation.There are a number of false statements and rumors spread by some countries, such as the one that water conservancy development brings security risks.These countries are geographically far outside the Lancang-Mekong River basin and are not directly affected by the concerns and demands of local development.They have overemphasized and abused the water conflict mediation agenda, while neglecting the water cooperative governance agenda.To highlight their political influence, some non-regional powers connived and encouraged international NGOs to oppose the construction of local hydropower stations, and then used the so-called third-party arbitration to form a high-level narrative, making water resources cooperation a vanity fair for foreign politicians and international NGOs to realize their own political demands and hype up the“dam threat theory.”The Lancang-Mekong River Cooperation governance narrative attaches importance to improving the governance agenda of water cooperation, emphasizes continuous attention to the sustainable use of water resources, cross-border water resources management, cross-border river governance and other issues.It encourages countries in the basin to actively expand water resources cooperation, paving the way for overall development and security.

Taking into account upstream and downstream national interests

In addition to the narrative of development contradictions that focuses on the inconsistency between development and pollution, there are also the conflict narrative and the responsibility narrative.The conflict narrative explores the relationship between water resources competition and interstate conflicts, focusing on conflicts and solutions in the process of water resources cooperation, such as whether there is a need for division of labor and cooperation in water resources development and utilization, agricultural irrigation, shipping construction, water ecology and other aspects, and how to negotiate and mediate conflicts.11The Hague Institute for Global Justice,“Water Diplomacy: Making Water Cooperation Work,”April 2017, https://www.planetarysecurityinitiative.org/sites/default/files/2017-04/PB_Water_Diplomacy_WG_4.pdf.The responsibility narrative discusses the responsibilities and obligations of upstream countries, and assumes that it is necessary to divide the rights and obligations in water resources cooperation as a prerequisite for solving the problem.The two narratives have different empositions, but they both imply the misreading that upstream and downstream conflicts are irreconcilable.Certain non-regional powers are trying to dominate the LMC discourse by describing the relations between upstream China and downstream Mekong countries as a“big country”vs.“small countries”antagonism with asymmetrical dependence.

This discourse can be subdivided into two categories: the first one is the“Lancang mindset,”which accuses China of acquiring privileges in LMC,using its authority and unequal trade relations to aggravate downstream countries’dependence on China, gaining political discourse power, and even promoting a“new tributaries system.”12Truong-Minh Vu,“Between System Maker and Privileges Taker: The Role of China in the Greater Mekong Sub-region,”Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional, Vol.57, 2014, pp.157-173;“China Wants to Put Itself Back at the Centre of the World,”The Economist, February 6, 2020, https://www.economist.com/special-report/2020/02/06/china-wants-to-put-itself-back-at-the-centre-of-the-world.The other one is the“Mekong mindset,”which is based on the presumption that the construction of hydropower stations upstream may threaten irrigation, water conservancy,fishery, and ecological environment downstream, emphasizes that nonregional countries should lead the Mekong River cooperation to check and balance China’s power.Its concrete goal is to sideline China as the upstream country and establish various multilateral cooperation mechanisms involving non-regional countries and the five downstream countries.13Sebastian Strangio,“How Meaningful Is the New US-Mekong Partnership?,”The Diplomat, September 14, 2020, https://thediplomat.com/2020/09/how-meaningful-is-the-new-us-mekong-partnership;“Chinese Mega-dams Drying Up the Mekong, Stifling the Laotian Economy,”Asianews, August 9, 2020, https://www.asianews.it/news-en/Chinese-mega-dams-drying-up-the-Mekong,-stifling-the-Laotian-economy-50973.html.

The“Lancang mindset”and“Mekong mindset”bring about two major dilemmas: first, they separate the identities of upstream and downstream countries, create an artificial division between“us”and“them,”and abandon key stakeholders, making it impossible to establish complete and effective cooperation.Second, they foster estrangement and confrontation, taking it for granted that the participants upstream only have obligations while those downstream enjoy more rights, creating an atmosphere of tension between the upstream and downstream.These misconceptions have created the widespread assumption that it was taboo to build dams, which has not only led to estrangement between the upstream and downstream countries,but also prevented countries along the river from wholeheartedly investing in hydropower construction to boost development due to the pressure of public opinion.The source of these problems lies in the traditional narratives overemphasizing the conflict of interest and the security dilemma among countries.They only pay attention to the sensitivity and vulnerability of downstream countries,14Sovinda Po and Christopher B.Primiano,“Explaining China’s Lancang-Mekong Cooperation as an Institutional Balancing Strategy: Dragon Guarding the Water,”Australian Journal of International Affairs,Vol.75, No.3, 2021, pp.323-340.but fail to recognize that upstream and downstream countries are inseparably linked.Cross-border rivers are an open domain and there is no clear definition of public property rights.The upper and lower reaches of a river coexist in the same public space.Cross-border water cooperation includes consultation, co-governance, and the autonomy of public resources.

Unlike the arms race or international trade, the issue of public space should not be subject to a highly competitive environment.It is not a relationship in which someone’s loss is another one’s gain.15Elinor Orbell and Marco A.Janssen,“Multi-Level Governance and Resilience of Social-Ecological Systems,”in Dordrecht M.Spoor, ed., Globalization, Poverty and Conflict: A Critical Development Reader,the Netherlands: Kluwer, pp.239-259.In other words, upstream countries have no strong incentive to take advantage of the vulnerability of downstream countries to intercept or cut off the flow of water, as this would be of no benefit to either side.To this end, LMC emphasizes the shared future, mutual benefit, and common prosperity of upstream and downstream countries, and is compatible with and transcends conflict and responsibility narratives.

Upholding genuine multilateralism

Lancang-Mekong river cooperation focuses on symbiosis, co-governance and shared benefits, and practices true multilateralism.Harmonious symbiosis emphasizes the dialectical unity of egoism and altruism.LMC was founded in the historical context of geographical, cultural and ethnic ties，and to fulfil specific requirements to build the China-ASEAN comprehensive strategic partnership and a China-ASEAN community of shared future.The countries concerned are interdependent, and no high-level regional cooperation can be achieved without the participation of all.16Jin Yingzhong,“Symbiosis of International Society—Theory of International Relations in the Era of Peaceful Development,”Social Science, Issue 10, 2011, pp.12-21; Zhou Qiang, Zhi Yupeng,“Literature Review of Lancang-Mekong Cross-basin Cooperation from the Perspective of Symbiosis,”Economic and Social Developmen, Issue 1, 2019, pp26-33.

Based on this, the Lancang-Mekong water cooperation governance narrative draws on the mature experience of cross-border water cooperation and emphasizes the symbiotic relationship between the upstream and downstream regions.Co-governance means that all countries in the basin share the development benefits, the responsibility, and the obligations of water resources protection.High-quality international water cooperation cannot be achieved without high-quality governance.Standardized management criteria for water resources can counter the threat posed by droughts and floods to the ecological and economic security and social stability of the sub-region.In Lancang-Mekong River cooperation, countries attach equal importance to the clear definition of rights and responsibilities and agree that cooperation should fully accommodate each other’s major concerns.Basin countries not only have the right of reasonable development and utilization of water resources, but also have the responsibility to take care of other countries, as well as the obligation to protect water resources.17“Ministerial Meeting of Lancang-Mekong Water Resources Cooperation held in Beijing,”December 20, 2019, http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2019-12/20/content_5462681.htm.

Shared benefits implies that the people of countries along the river share the benefits of cross-border water cooperation and promote high-quality common development, which not only includes the joint development and utilization of fresh water, rivers, and hydropower, but also includes the shared use of institutions.The Lancang-Mekong River Commission was established as early as 1957.After the end of the Cold War, a series of sub-regional cooperation frameworks were established, such as the Greater Mekong Sub-Region Economic Cooperation Mechanism (GMS) promoted by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) in 1992.In 1995, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Viet Nam signed the Agreement on the Cooperation for the Sustainable Development of the Mekong River Basin and re-established the new Mekong River Commission.Lancang-Mekong River cooperation focuses on openness and sharing of existing multilateral mechanisms in the region, and the coordinated development of regional and sub-regional cooperation mechanisms.It draws on numerous resources and extensive wisdom, so that the the whole is greater than its individual parts.18Jin Chenyi,“Foster a Lancang-Mekong Pilot Zone for Implementing the Global Development Initiative,”August 11, 2022, http://cn.chinadiplomacy.org.cn/2022-08/11/content_78366921.shtml.

The governance narrative of Lancang-Mekong water cooperation is an innovative approach of integration and inclusion which differs from the conventional discourse of water governance cooperation.It also improves and surpasses the shortcomings of traditional narratives.The governance narrative of Lancang-Mekong River cooperation abandons the traditional narrative’s strict distinction between upstream and downstream, and bridges the rift between them with the idea of symbiosis, co-governance, and sharing.At the same time,Lancang-Mekong water cooperation truly returns water resources cooperation to the market and society in the spirit of responsible multilateralism.Its governance narrative restores the underlying logic of water cooperation, that is, it takes full advantage of the benefits of water and the merits of the people, and promotes the common development of people along the river through the effective use of water resources.

Integration of Knowledge and Practice in Lancang-Mekong Water Cooperation Governance

The China-initiated Lancang-Mekong cooperation has provided a new governance narrative for global water resources cooperation.However, to continue and expand this path of innovation, it is necessary to more specifically review its practices and provide richer experiences for reference in the development of the next Golden Five Years.The governance narrative of Lancang-Mekong water cooperation focuses on clarifying two relations, namely, the human-towater relationship and the people-to-people relationship.The governance of the human relationship to water involves the utilization of resources and prevention and control of disasters and pollution.It is based on a social practice that takes into account production and ecology.It is a balance between development and security.The governance of people-to-people relations involves upstream and downstream international relations and cross-community public governance.Based on the symbiotic practice of both autonomy and openness, it promotes the adaptability and win-win collaboration of upstream and downstream countries in the spirit of true multilateralism.

The practice of managing the relationship between humans and water: balancing development and management

The best way to manage the interaction between people and water and reconcile development with security in Lancang-Mekong water cooperation,is to go beyond the traditional mindset of having development first and governance later in water use, and simultaneously avoid the trend of slowing down development and paying attention to governance only.It is important to prevent damage to the ecological environment caused by excessive development,and at the same time to combat the loss of quality of life caused by extreme environmental protection, which results in Lancang-Mekong countries being less profitable and less interested in cooperation.To be specific, Lancang-Mekong water cooperation has opened up a viable path at different levels, from top-level design and overall planning to responding to public opinion.

First of all, as an upstream country, China uses its learned experience to consolidate the top-level design of Lancang-Mekong water cooperation and promote disaster prevention and production.For example, at the meeting on China-ASEAN Cooperation on Flood Control and Drought Emergency Management organized by the Lancang-Mekong Water Resources Cooperation Center of the Yangtze River Water Resources Commission in April 2020, The Yangtze River Design Institute introduced the top-level design of Lancang-Mekong water resources cooperation, the formulation of the 2020-2022 action plan for Lancang-Mekong Water resources cooperation, the progress of the revision of the irrigation development plan for major grain-producing areas in Myanmar,and the communication with Laos on the comprehensive planning of major rivers in Laos.19“Yangtze River Committee Holds Video Conference on China-Asean Cooperation Project on Flood Control and Drought Emergency Management,”April 2, 2020, http://www.chinawater.com.cn/newscenter/ly/cj/202004/t20200402_747862.html.The conference emphasized the balance between flood control and drought relief, combating the epidemic and flood control, and epidemic relief and irrigation development, fully demonstrating China’s wisdom of balancing ecological and production practices.

Another example is the Yellow River—Mekong River Local Cooperation Lecture hosted by the Shandong Provincial Foreign Affairs Office and the Shandong ASEAN Research Center of Dezhou University in April 2022, which actively discussed cooperation between provinces along the Yellow River Basin and Lancang-Mekong countries on industrial projects and promoted the mature experience of Yellow River water governance and cooperation among provinces along the Yellow River.By participating in Lancang-Mekong water cooperation, China’s experience in industrial cooperation and coordinated development, project management of ecoindustrial innovation and cultural cooperation, and in the establishment of cooperation lists, has helped ease Lancang-Mekong countries’concerns over the contradiction between ecology and production.

Second, upstream and downstream countries coordinate their efforts to promote the intensive and safe use of water resources and jointly provide necessary international public goods.20International public goods refer to the public goods with the general characteristics of public goods,that is, the benefits are not exclusive and the consumption is not competitive, and the public goods can benefit many countries, such as transnational peace, financial stability, free trade, knowledge, standards, etc.See Oliver Morrissey, Dirk Willem te Velde, and Adrian Hewitt,“Defining International Public Goods,”in M.Ferroni and A.Mody, eds., International Public Goods, Boston: Springer, 2002, pp.31-46.At the launch ceremony of the LMC China Secretariat in March 2017, China Foreign Minister Wang Yi stressed that LMC should not be just empty talk, but a down-to-earth“bulldozer.”21“Wang Yi: LMC should not be an Empty Talk, but a Down-to-earth Pushdozer,”March 10, 2017, http://www.xinhuanet.com//world/2017-03/10/c_1120607122.htm.The expression“bulldozer”symbolizes high efficiency, pragmatism, and projectoriented development of Lancang-Mekong countries, with the development of people’s livelihoods as the defining motivation, building a new bridge of effective communication between neighboring countries, and providing a model connectivity standard.China stresses the importance of adjusting measures to water conditions, and recognizes the existing problems in traditional water cooperation.22“Xi Jinping Unford a Picture of Beautiful China,”August 22, 2017, https://news.12371.cn/2017/08/22/ARTI1503332866390413.shtml.

Lancang-mekong countries have set up projects including Demonstration of Integrated Management of Typical Small Basin in the Lancang-Mekong Countries and dam safety examinations, which were proposed simultaneously to accelerate the implementation of the Lancang-Mekong Environmental Cooperation Strategy and the Green Lancang-Mekong Plan, and to explore paths for high-quality cooperative governance.23“Joint Statement on Strengthening Cooperation on Sustainable Development among Lancang-Mekong Countries,”June 8, 2021, http://www.lmcchina.org/2021-06/09/content_41587337.htm.LMC also strengthens and promotes project-oriented technologies for water resource planning, allocation,and security.The Lancang-Mekong Water Resources Cooperation Center has made remarkable achievements in coping with flood and drought disasters in the basin under extreme climate conditions.All parties agreed to continue to strengthen relevant joint research and coordination to jointly address the challenge of climate change.

Third, Mekong countries speak independently to disperse noisy rumors.In December 2019, the Mekong River Commission Secretariat and the Lancang-Mekong Water Resources Cooperation Center signed a Memorandum of Understanding to forge closer ties through technical cooperation, mutual support, and complementarity of work.The Mekong River Commission also refuted untrue allegations with professional data and arguments.For example,the Mekong River Commission published a research report on the hype that dams in China blocked river flow causing drought in downstream Southeast Asian countries, showing that it was based on a false interpretation of data from the Mekong Dam Monitoring (MDM) agency.

In addition, China has always been open and transparent, inviting officials, scholars, and media from Lancang-Mekong countries to inspect the development and ecological protection of the upper reaches of the Lancang River.During the Lancang-Mekong Week on Water Resources held at the end of April 2021, delegations from Lancang-Mekong countries visited Nuozhadu Hydropower Station on Lancang River, Nuozhadu fish breeding Station,and Manmi migrant Village.The concept of building a power station while protecting the ecology in the region has been truthfully presented to the outside world, actively dispelling rumors and fallacies such as the one that the Lancang River cascade power station development would“destroy the ecology.”24“The Lancang-Mekong Water Resources Week in 2021 was Successfully Held in Yunnan,”April 30,2021, http://www.chinawater.com.cn/newscenter/kx/202104/t20210430_764360.html.

Cooperation performance is key to a successful governance of the relationship between people and water.LMC fully leverages traditional cooperation practices and emerging technologies, focuses on the balance between water resources development and management, puts priority on tackling illegal pollution discharge, ecological damage, and related issues that hinder production and affect people’s economic life in the name of ecology.In terms of water resources cooperation, the competent water resources authorities of Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam attach great importance to the hydrological information provided by China and the cooperation projects on people’s livelihood, convinced that relevant measures taken by China have played an important role in flood control, disaster reduction, and water resources management in downstream countries.25“The Second Lancang-Mekong Water Resources Cooperation Forum Opened,”December 7, 2021,http://www.chinawater.com.cn/newscenter/kx/202112/t20211207_776133.html.

Meanwhile, LMC attaches great importance to dam safety.At the end of 2021, led by the Nanjing Institute of Hydraulic Science and the Dam Safety Management Center of the Ministry of Water Resources, Mekong countries participated in the implementation of a number of dam safety projects with regard to the Lancang-Mekong hydropower station.They also took part in dam safety management technology sharing and capacity building programs, and in the Lancang-Mekong Dam health examination Project.26“ASEAN Dam Safety Project: Regional Technical Cooperation for Dam Safety Management,”December 24, 2019, http://www.chinawater.com.cn/ztgz/xwzt/2021ytyl/202111/t20211124_775421.html.By taking into account production, livelihood and ecology, and balancing security and development,the Lancang-Mekong region is changing with each passing day, bringing tangible and high-quality development to the local people.

The practice of governing people-to-people relationships: overall autonomy and openness

The practice of Lancang-Mekong River cooperation actively transcends the traditional concept of upstream and downstream rights and responsibilities,and transforms the conventional logic of power dependence among countries into a logic of social symbiosis, which is a practice of both independence and openness.Water resources governance in the Lancang-Mekong region must deal with security contradictions brought about by the arbitrariness of rules in the international system, and at the same time overcome the free rider mentality for public goods in the logic of the market economy.Against the background of the rapid development of water resources, countries should consider how to encourage communities along the routes to move from self-preservation of water resources to openness of water resources.Water resources are not only public goods, but also quasi-public goods with certain exclusivity and competition.27Ren Heng,“Why Autonomous Governance is Possible – Examining the Limitations of Elinor Ostrom’s Autonomous Governance Thought,”Socical Science Forum, Isuue 3, 2021, p.141.Detrimental effects for the common people can be avoided to the greatest extent possible by advocating the rule of law, increasing incentives, effective consultation and self-regulation.The practice of both autonomy and openness is a mutually beneficial practice that integrates the upstream and downstream sectors and promotes connectivity within and outside the region.

First, LMC identifies the downstream demand and creates better upstream supply.LMC has solved the problem of the absence of middle and upstream participation in traditional Mekong sub-regional cooperation initiatives and created a situation in which the upstream actively creates supply.Before the establishment of the LMC, countries outside the region, such as India, Japan,the United States, and the Republic of Korea, all established cooperation initiatives with Mekong countries.When encountering conflicts within the basin, these mechanisms give priority to mediation by countries outside the region, seemingly providing a neutral and fair platform, but actually making upstream countries the target of untrue claims.LMC on the other hand,emphasizes that problems should be addressed through consultation and open discussion on issues of precise demand and supply, not through empty talk.For example, at the Lancang-Mekong Water Resources Cooperation Ministerial Meeting, some countries raised the expectation of more knowledge sharing and technology exchange programs, and urged further analysis of available water resources data.28“Speech at Lancang-Mekong Water Resources Cooperation Ministerial Meeting: Mr.Win Khant,Permanent Secretary of Ministry of Transport and Communication of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar,”December 24, 2019, http://www.chinawater.com.cn/ztgz/hy/2019lmhy/3/201912/t20191224_742621.html.

In response, the Ministry of Water Resources of China and the Mekong River Commission signed an agreement in October 2020.According to the agreement, China’s two international hydrological stations on the upper reaches of the Mekong River, Yunjinghong and Manan, will provide yearround hydrological data to help Mekong countries better monitor the river and forecast floods and droughts.China’s timely understanding of the needs of downstream countries and precise joint management of watershed difficulties have won praise from Mekong countries.Vietnamese diplomats in China said that this has created conditions for LMC countries to implement the five-year action plan smoothly and further strengthen cooperation and unity.29“The Well Recoganized Contribution of Water Resources to the Belt and Road Initiative,”December 24, 2021, http://www.chinawater.com.cn/ztgz/xwzt/2021ytyl/202111/t20211124_775386.html.

Second, LMC activates internal motivation and forms a pattern of openingup that is proactive rather than reactive.Endogenous motivation refers to the cohesion formed by the active participation of the countries along the river in the sub-regional cooperation.Due to the deep involvement of non-regional countries, the cross-border river governance of many emerging developing countries around the globe is difficult to achieve due to the lack of internal impetus.Similar issues also exist in the Lancang-Mekong region.As for the water resources cooperation agenda, Mekong countries are expected to simultaneously align with different mechanisms such as the Japan-Mekong Regional Cooperation Partnership (JMRRP), the Lower Mekong Initiative(LMI), and the Mekong-Korea Cooperation (MKC).As countries in the basin are strained by institutional congestion, the motivation to solve key cooperation problems is reduced and the original cooperation mechanisms are abandoned.In addition, the dominant players of various mechanisms compete for the right to speak in Mekong sub-region cooperation, resulting in an excess of cooperation topics and making it difficult to focus on economic and social development and people’s well-being in the region.

In contrast, Lancang-Mekong water cooperation emphasizes independence and openness and puts the initiative of the basin countries first.LMC not only calls for countries to independently implement the Five-Year Action Plan on Mekong Water Resources Cooperation (2018-2022) in light of their own conditions, it also supports the implementation of initiatives by the Mekong River Commission or downstream countries, such as the Mekong River Strategic Plan 2021-2025, the Basin Development Strategy 2021-2030, and the Resolution on Sustainable and Climate-Resilient Development of the Mekong Delta in Vietnam.These mechanisms were designed to prevent the waste of energy and resources that may be caused by overlapping institutions and complex institutions.

In general, the practice of Lancang-Mekong water cooperation coordinates the internal and external circulation of the sub-region and is conducive to the formation of adaptive win-win water governance both within and outside the region.Cooperation among LMC countries in the region does not deny the objective differences of interests among countries.Instead, it emphasizes mutual compromise and adaptation among stakeholders, and ultimately achieves win-win cooperation through mutual understanding, common fulfillment, and joint achievement.Before the establishment of the LMC, the Lancang-Mekong River was similar to other cross-border rivers such as the Nile and the Amazon, and there were once internal conflicts that were hard to reconcile.30Amy Sawitta Lefevre and Paul Carsten,“Vietnam and Cambodia Hit Back at Landmark Laos Dam,”January 18, 2013, https://www.reuters.com/article/laos-dam/vietnam-and-cambodia-hit-back-at-landmarklaos-dam-idUKL4N0AK4GH20130118.For example, Laos, an upstream country, has been condemned by Cambodia and Vietnam for the Xayaburi hydropower station, while Cambodia protested against Vietnam,which lies upstream of Cambodia, for the Srepok Dam.31“Cambodia,”https://archive.internationalrivers.org/campaigns/cambodia.

After the establishment of the LMC, the system of two chairships were implemented to jointly supervise and manage the allocation and management of public resources.In the spirit of a community with a shared future, countries have consulted ahead of time, communicated and shared with each other in a timely manner, reducing the chance that similar incidents would happen again.At the first Lancang-Mekong Water Resources Cooperation Forum held in November 2018, the List of Proposed Projects on Lancang-Mekong water cooperation was adopted.All projects will be jointly implemented by two or more Lancang-Mekong River member countries, which enhances closer cooperation among Lancang-Mekong River member countries at all levels.Lancang-Mekong countries also maintain an open and inclusive attitude towards international cooperation outside the region.32“Closing Remarks at the Mekong Water Resources Cooperation Ministerial Meeting,”December 24,2019, http://www.chinawater.com.cn/ztgz/hy/2019lmhy/3/201912/t20191224_742624.html.Taking advantage of the opportunities of international water cooperation, LMC has actively opened up communication channels with international water cooperation mechanisms such as the China-EU Water Policy Dialogue and the China-EU Water Resources Exchange Platform.In the future, various mechanisms are expected to contribute wisdom, learn from each other’s experience, and seek common growth areas.

Major Changes Call for an Inclusive Sub-Regional Order

The world is facing the twofold challenge of profound changes unseen in a century and the pandemic era, which at the same time also presents multiple opportunities for building an inclusive sub-regional order.Before the advent of the post-pandemic era, governance narratives that are socially symbiotic can effectively alleviate people’s anxiety about fierce competition caused by the uneven distribution of resources in traditional modes of cooperation between countries.All parties should join hands to build an inclusive regional order for Lancang-Mekong water cooperation and work at the subregional level to foster a small but refined governance model that can lead the way for more inclusive global governance.The COVID-19 pandemic is accompanied by a crisis and the transformation of the international landscape, whose global governance system needs to be updated.

First, the global governance system cannot fully reflect the fact that the world has undergone tremendous changes and is increasingly incompatible with the demands of the entire international community, especially developing countries.33Xu Bu,“Answer the Questions of the Times and Promote Global Development,”Study Times, July 1,2022, p.2.Former US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger said that COVID-19 cannot be overcome by a single sovereign state, and that structural power conflicts should give way to crisis management.34Henry A.Kissinger,“The Coronavirus Pandemic Will Forever Alter the World Order,”Wall Street Journal, April 3, 2020, https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-coronavirus-pandemic-will-forever-alter-theworld-order-11585953005.

Second, the Cold War mentality is unwelcome and cannot solve any problems.The revival of the Cold War mentality and the black-and-white logic of conflict and accountability will only dampen any robust multilateral cooperation.Dividing the world into“us”or“them”will not ensure more security.Today’s international security issues can no longer be viewed and handled with an outdated Cold War mentality.35Xu Bu and Chen Wenbin,“The United States and NATO Cling to the Five Sins of Cold War Mentality,”Guangming Daily, May 2, 2022, p.4.As American scholar Joseph Nye put it,comparing China-US relations to the Cold War is a simplistic and hazardous way of thinking, when in fact the world is operating in the three-dimensional domain where economic cooperation has closely linked countries with each other.

Third, it is more urgent than ever to balance development and security.There is no time to delay the establishment of a global policy coordination mechanism and drive regional recovery with governance innovation as the starting point.China-led regional multilateral governance is following the concept of President Xi Jinping’s thought of“balanced development and security”to create a more stable security environment for sustainable development.In the next five years, the international landscape will enter a period of profound adjustment.The impact of the pandemic is still being felt, the global supply chain crisis is intensifying, and the Ukraine crisis has a far-reaching impact on the world order.

The Golden Five Years of Lancang-Mekong water cooperation will witness the impact of an era of chaos.Firstly, LMC will be continuously challenged by the structural contradictions between China and the US.The US intends to drag the international community back to the Cold War era of bipolar confrontation and establish a hierarchy in the Asia-Pacific region with its Indo-Pacific strategy,deliberately excluding China.In addition to continuing to play the geopolitical card in the Lancang-Mekong region by relying on the US-Mekong partnership,the US may release the so-called Lancang-Mekong Water Use Report to sow discord between China and Mekong countries with false data.36Deng Han,“China Treats Water Well on the Lancang-Mekong River,”https://m.thepaper.cn/baijiahao_8313323.Secondly,the finger pointing at China as the largest upstream country may continue to squeeze China’s strategic autonomy in LMC.China’s location in the upstream part is naturally determined by geography and not a matter of choice.However,some politicians and interest groups with ulterior motives still take advantage of the vulnerability of downstream countries to amplify their desire for greater consideration of their interests and need for security when dealing with China.This is an attempt to transform the upstream and downstream conflicts from possibility to reality, which makes it more difficult for China to avoid potential risks.Finally, based on the self-interested assumption of rational people, some western economists have circulated malicious speculations about China’s intention to provide regional public goods, used the anti-dam argument to undermine specific projects in Lancang-Mekong water cooperation, and may provoke a crisis of confidence in downstream countries by comparing their cases with those of other countries.For example, certain NGOs are suggesting a lack of transparency of Chinese projects.By equating China to a mere seller of water resources and declaring downstream countries as the consumers, they have misrepresented China as a predatory businessman.37B.Chellaney, Water: Asia’s New Battleground, Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2011, p.2.

In addition, some have floated arguments that China wants to exert hegemony over public waters and peddled the idea that rejecting the building of dams means being anti-hegemonic.38B.Chellaney,“China’s Water Henemony in Asia,”https://www.livemint.com/Opinion/1qM2LdMPs Md0fLNrDUVjRK/Chinas-water-hegemony-in-Asia.html.In addition to the extraterritorial factors, the political situation as it might develop within the Mekong countries in the next five years also poses potential challenges to LMC.For example, there are pending problems with pumps, aging water pipes, water and electricity supplies, and the damage done to water infrastructure by political instability in some countries.Some Mekong countries may face leadership changes in the next five years, which will also bring some uncertainties and indirectly affect relevant water cooperation projects.

In this context, the inclusive path of LMC has gained a more concrete grounding and a clearer direction.First, based on mutual understanding and trust, it accommodates existing or potentially erupting security risks within member countries.Second, based on the community mentality of openness and inclusiveness, LMC effectively avoids internal security dilemmas and external zero-sum game influence.Thirdly, based on the endogenous motivation of regional integration, LMC systematically deals with the spillover effects of regional security issues.Fourth, based on the synergy of sustainable security and development, China’s“dual cycle”economic program breaks open the traditional western economics’premise of rational self-reliance in the region.While promoting the upgrading of cooperation,regional countries effectively regulate the relationship between national and collective decision-making to avoid risks brought by collective irrationality.

Strengthening the Endogenous Motivation for Building an Inclusive Regional Order

Inclusion starts with the fundamental needs of the people along the river,continues with the social empathy of the community of a shared future,builds on internal openness and circulation, and enhances the internal vitality of the water cooperation community.LMC extends the life cycle of cooperation by opening up and external circulation.On this basis, China, as a responsible major country, has taken the initiative to provide public goods,and countries have taken turns to coordinate the allocation and coordination of public resources, so as to jointly find a self-confident and self-disciplined sustainable path through renewal.At the same time, LMC has strengthened the foundation for cordial relations through the building of a bilateral and multilateral Lancang-Mekong community of a shared future.

Encouraging people to contribute to the Lancang-Mekong region on the basis of empathy

The Lancang-Mekong River is to some extent a location which is relatively closed off to the outside.It is also not easy for all parties to put themselves in each other’s shoes and understand one another correctly.Meanwhile, the capacity gap between the various LMC countries is difficult to close in a short time, because the supply and demand side is relatively fixed.It is difficult to change the role of a country in sub-regional cooperation.However, this kind of closure also provides convenience for open minded communication within the region.Even in the era of COVID-19, Lancang-Mekong countries can share hydrological information and enhance interaction through cooperation on biodiversity and projects that benefit the people.

At the same time, LMC deepens connectivity through the fight against COVID-19 and explores ways to build a community of shared future among bilateral and multilateral Lancang-Mekong countries.Lancang-mekong countries have established a cooperation framework including leaders’meetings, foreign ministers’meetings, senior officials’meetings, and working group meetings in various fields to conduct multi-level and multi-dimensional exchanges from top to bottom.At the ASEAN-China Special Summit to Commemorate the 30th Anniversary of ASEAN-China Dialogue Relations,President Xi Jinping advocated a shared future and proposed building a homeland of peace, stability, beauty, prosperity, and friendship.39“For a Shared Future and Our Common Home—Speech by Xi Jinping President of the People’s Republic of China at the Special Summit to Commemorate the 30th Anniversary of China-ASEAN Dialogue Relations,”November 22, 2021, http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2021-11/22/content_5652461.htm.

In the next five years, Lancang-Mekong exchanges can continue to expand,based on the consensus that Lancang-Mekong countries live in a shared home where everyone can contribute to the common Lancang-Mekong cause.It will also promote the existing China-Laos, China-Cambodia, and China-Myanmar communities of shared future in bilateral and multilateral ways.

First, water quality management and epidemic control should be carried out and promoted at the same time.The joint monitoring of public waterways will be used to ensure safe and smooth navigation.Second, water resources development and post-epidemic recovery should be combined.Small and medium-sized cooperation projects, such as irrigation water replenishment in the dry season, water purification, and climate change early warning systems,deepen people-to-people exchanges and lay a social foundation for relatively professional hydropower development and dam cooperation.Third, LMC encourages more countries in the region to speak out positively.Countries in the middle and lower reaches can take the initiative in public policy debates to effectively correct misinformation by telling the facts and actively dispelling the noise and dissonant voices from non-regional powers.40Steven Langendonk,“Discourse Power as a Means to‘Struggle for Position’: A Critical Case Study of the Belt and Road Narrative’s Effects on Foreign Policy Formulation in the Netherlands,”Journal of Chinese Political Science, Vol.25, No.2, 2020, pp.241-260.

LMC contributing to all people through openness

Countries in the region should call upon the LMC to make contributions to all people through opening up at home and abroad.While integrating resources within the region and emphasizing common development, countries outside the region should not be excluded from participating, so as to achieve cross-institutional synergy and integration.First, LMC needs to open wider to the outside world and build powerful internal economic interaction.In the next five years, Lancang-Mekong countries will face the challenge of recovering from the pandemic.The new development pattern advocated by China, in which the domestic cycle plays a leading role and domestic and international cycles reinforce each other, will inject vitality into the overall economic recovery of the region.41“Joint Statement on Strengthening Cooperation on Sustainable Development among Lancang-Mekong Countries,”June 8, 2021, http://www.lmcchina.org/2021-06/09/content_41587337.htm.

Advocating a strong domestic cycle calls for greater openness among Lancang-Mekong countries and greater internal demand for regional water cooperation.At the Sixth Lancang-Mekong Cooperation Foreign Ministers’Meeting in June 2021, the Joint Statement on Strengthening Lancang-Mekong Cooperation on Sustainable Development reaffirmed their commitment to extensive practical cooperation in river basin planning, dam safety,comprehensive management of small river basins, capacity building, emergency management, and water-related risk and impact assessment.

These cooperation formats express the common aspirations of all countries and set the direction for the expansion of water cooperation in the next five years.At the same time, the internal circulation of regional water cooperation should be strengthened.With the deepening of cooperation, the parties along the Lancang-Mekong River have realized the symbiotic link between water resource supply and demand, climate and environmental governance, and public resources management of water conservancy facilities.These links can speed up the formation of an internal cycle of supply and demand, accelerate industrial integration and market derivatives, and turn the waters of Lancang-Mekong into a model for the construction of a common destiny among Lancang-Mekong countries.

Secondly, it is important to maintain external openness in the region based on the principle of multilateralism, with the perspective of systematic expansion and extension of the life span of LMC.In this process, LMC can learn from other multilateral mechanisms for basin water cooperation.For example, the International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River includes the International Commission for the Protection of the Sava River Basin as an observer.The EU is a party to basin treaties such as the Danube Convention and the Convention for the Protection of the Rhine River, as well as in the basin management bodies established by the treaties.42He Yanmei,“Transnational Watershed Management Mechanism under International Water Law Adjustment,”Boundary and Marine Studies, Issue 6, 2020, p.71.Another example is the Irrawaddy-Menam-Mekong Economic Cooperation (referred to as the Three-River Cooperation) involving Mekong countries, which emphasizes inter-basin industrial collaboration and can be embedded in the ASEAN multilateral mechanism for exchanges and complementarity.In the next five years, Lancang-Mekong countries will follow the current mechanism of mutual assistance, further foster an open system of regional circulation both internally and externally, and conduct regular dialogue with ASEAN, the Greater Mekong Sub-region Economic Cooperation, the Three-River Cooperation, and other regional and sub-regional mechanisms, so as to provide more high-quality international public goods through the sharing of interests.

Taking the initiative to manage the people-to-water relationship by empowering others

To enhance the motivation for water cooperation projects, China’s role as an advocate, builder, and participant of LMC cannot be ignored.When it comes to managing the relationship between people and water, China can lead by example and take the initiative to empower others.China has made every effort to ensure the water supply of downstream countries and provide timely hydrological information.It has taken the lead in implementing such practical cooperation projects as the Lancang-Mekong River Fresh Water Action Plan and Plan on Lancang-Mekong Water Resources Benefiting the People to enhance the water resources management capacity of countries.43“Top 10 News of China’s Participation in Lancang-Mekong and Mekong Sub-Region Cooperation in 2021,”January 2022, https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjb_673085/zzjg_673183/yzs_673193/xwlb_673195/202201/P020220130550895398554.pdf.In the future, LMC can continually improve the existing framework and help to spread the ongoing“Lancang-Mekong water story”by acting as a platform for the Lancang-Mekong chairmanship.

At the same time, China should empower others in a scientific way, stick to the theme of sustainable development, and disseminate and practice the new development concepts of Lancang-Mekong water resources cooperation.China can structure water cooperation into a process: in the field of extraction and maitainance of water resources, it can provide solutions for water extraction and diversion, emphasize the new concept of green, inclusive and coordinated development, and avoid focusing only on the consumption of water while ignoring the maintainance.In the stage of protection and maintenance of water resources, China can provide the public resource pool of water resources maintenance to avoid the obsolete concept of development which only utilizes but does not recycle.In addition, China should accept fair and reasonable supervision with an open mind, so as to dispel the concerns of some politicians who abandon water use and water maintenance in a blind pursuit of environmental votes.

Coordinating people-to-people relations to upgrade the cooperation

The Golden Five Years period ushered in a new cycle in which the existing cooperation model is bound to be repeatedly optimized.Countries in the LMC region may express their views and create a“Lancang-Mekong spirit”with unique features and common prosperity.In the new round of cooperation, while China continues to provide technical support and public goods, countries should take turns to lead the allocation and coordination of public resources, gradually establish a sustainable path of self-awareness and self-discipline, and establish an equal and inclusive people-to-people relationship featuring division of labor and different responsibilities.

Firstly, LMC should pay attention to incentives and projects to boost cooperation motivation.After a professional ecological assessment, the specialized areas of water cooperation should be handed over to national expert teams and project contractors.In this process, participants can resume discussions at regular Lancang-Mekong Water Resources cooperation joint working group meetings to resolve complex issues.“Big container”mechanisms such as the“10+1”and RCEP can be used to mobilize initiatives of leaders of different countries on various occasions.At the same time, due to the limited terms of office of the governments in the Mekong River region, it is recommended to set more short-term goals for cooperation and keep the enthusiasm of all parties involved by focusing on small but attractive projects.

Secondly, take a problem-solving approach that can handle both obvious near-term solutions and tricky long-term challenges by“pushing the boat with the current”and“sailing against the current.”Countries can learn from each other’s experience in water management and help partners to avoid detours and follow the trend.LMC should be fully concerned about the difficulties in achieving the water-related goals of the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, and use the LMC Special Fund to help solve specific problems.For example, in response to Vietnam’s problem of seawater intrusion in the Cuu Long River Delta due to the lack of a regional and distributed water storage system44“Efficient and Sustainable Use of Water Resources,”Lancang-Mekong Water Resources Cooperation Information Sharing Platform, March 31, 2022, http://cn.lmcwater.org.cn/dynamic_news/202203/t20220331_165735.html., China can assist Vietnam in developing relevant systems and provide technical support.At the same time, China can share its experience in managing the Yangtze River Delta, provide necessary support for Vietnam’s rational planning, and maintain close communication in the process of solving the problem.We should foster the Lancang-Mekong spirit of facing problems head-on through cooperation.

Last but not least, LMC advocates that the stronger countries shoulder more responsibilities, and encourages independent innovation and development.In the process of sub-regional integration, Lancang-Mekong countries attach importance to providing a tool kit for their sustainable development through policy dialogue and technological exchanges, and encourage those who can do more to create high-quality public platforms.Even so, some still accuse China of contributing too much and monopolizing interests, and worry that China is seeking regional hegemony by providing too many regional public goods.45Lu Guangsheng and Nie Jiao,“Dynamic mechanism of Lancang-Mekong Cooperation: An Analysis Based on Benefit-Responsibility-Norm,”World Outlook, Issue 1, 2021, p.113, p.123.In future cooperation, countries in the Lancang-Mekong

River region should make use of existing public facilities and tools to try to innovate independently and expand means to solve difficulties.At the same time, they should have a positive, sober, and independent awareness of the contributions of countries in the region, so as to avoid the Lancang-Mekong water cooperation becoming a tool for geopolitical and ideological competition among those with ulterior motives.

Conclusion

Advocating an inclusive order in water cooperation is a viable attempt to build a sense of community among Lancang-Mekong countries.From empathy to shared destiny, from principles to the pragmatic and to effective reproduction, it is necessary to integrate the interests, motivations, and values of all parties.In the course of concrete practice, while giving full play to China’s strengths as a major power, LMC encourages countries to take the initiative to self-consciously promote the development of the Lancang-Mekong collective wisdom on the basis of specific projects, so as to achieve adaptability and win-win results among Lancang-Mekong countries.The inclusive path shifts from national narrative to social narrative, attaches importance to governance cooperation, takes into account the“closed”and“open”nature of Lancang-Mekong water resources cooperation, and emphasizes the dialectical unity of the initiative of China’s status and the initiative of countries within the region.In the next five years, China should leverage water resources cooperation in multiple fields, form complementary cooperation and interconnected development between Lancang-Mekong,ASEAN, and non-regional countries, strengthen the strategic focus and discourse on Lancang-Mekong water issues, share information and experience, encourage countries inside and outside the region to participate in the governance of people and their waters, and build a high-quality Lancang-Mekong community with a shared future.